human trafficking

Trafficking in human beings is the commercial trade ("smuggling") of human beings, who are subjected to involuntary acts such as begging, sexual exploitation (eg. prostitution and forced marriage), or unfree labour (eg. involuntary servitude or working in sweatshops). Trafficking involves a process of using physical force, fraud, deception, or other forms or coercion or intimidation to obtain, recruit, harbour, and transport people.

Overview

Human trafficking differs from people smuggling. In the latter, people voluntarily request smuggler's service for fees and there is no deception involved in the (illegal) agreement. On arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is either free, or is required to work under a job arranged by the smuggler until the debt is repaid. On the other hand, the trafficking victim is enslaved, or the terms of their debt bondage are fraudulent or highly exploitative. The trafficker takes away the basic human rights of the victim. Victims are sometimes tricked and lured by false promises or physically forced. Some traffickers use coercive and manipulative tactics including deception , intimidation, feigned love, isolation, threat and use of physical force, debt bondage, other abuse, or even force-feeding with drugs to control their victims. [1]

Trafficked persons usually come from the poorer regions of the world, where opportunities are limited and are often from the most vulnerable in society, such as runaways, refugees, or other displaced persons, (especially in post-conflict situations, such as Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina), though they may also come from any social background, class or race. People who are seeking entry to other countries may be picked up by traffickers, and — typically — misled into thinking that they will be free after being smuggled across the border. In some cases, they are captured through slave raiding, although this is increasingly rare. Other cases may involve parents who may sell children to traffickers in order to pay off debts or gain income.

Women, who form the majority of trafficking victims, are particularly at risk from potential kidnappers who exploit lack of opportunities, promise good jobs or opportunities for study, and then force the victims to be prostitutes. Through agents and brokers who arrange the travel and job placements, women are escorted to their destinations and delivered to the employers. Upon reaching their destinations, some women learn that they have been deceived about the nature of the work they will do; most have been lied to about the financial arrangements and conditions of their employment; and all find themselves in coercive and abusive situations from which escape is both difficult and dangerous.

The main motives of a woman (and in some cases an underage girl) to accept an offer from a trafficker is for better financial opportunities for themselves or their family. In many cases traffickers initially offer ‘legitimate’ work. The main types of work offered are in the catering and hotel industry, in bars and clubs, au pair work or to study. Offers of marriage are sometimes used by traffickers as well as threats, intimidation and kidnapping. In the majority of cases, prostitution is where the women end up. Also some (migrating) prostitutes become victims of human trafficking. Some women know they will be working as prostitutes, but they have a too rosy picture of the circumstances and the conditions of the work in the country of destination.[2]

Men are also at risk of being trafficked for unskilled work predominantly involving hard labour. Other forms of trafficking include bonded and sweatshop labour, forced marriage, and domestic servitude. Children are also trafficked for both labour exploitation and sexual exploitation. On a related issue, children are forced to be child soldiers.

Many women are forced into the sex trade after answering false advertisements and others are simply kidnapped. Thousands of children are sold into the global sex trade every year. Oftentimes they are kidnapped or orphaned, and sometimes they are actually sold by their own families. These children often come from Asia, Africa, and South America.

Traffickers mostly target developing nations where the women are desperate for jobs. The women are often so poor that they can not afford things like food and health care. When the women are offered a position as a nanny or waitress, they often jump to the opportunity.

Extent

US State Department data “estimated 600,000 to 800,000 men, women, and children (are) trafficked across international borders each year, approximately 80 percent are women and girls and up to 50 percent are minors. The data also illustrate that the majority of transnational victims are trafficked into commercial sexual exploitation.” [3]. Due to the illegal nature of trafficking and differences in methodology, the exact extent is unknown.

An estimated 14,000 people are trafficked into the United States each year, although again because trafficking is illegal, accurate statistics are difficult. [4] According to the Massachusetts based Trafficking Victims Outreach and Services Networkin Massachusetts alone, there were 55 documented cases of human trafficking in 2005 and the first half of 2006 in Massachusetts. [5] In 2004, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) estimated that 600-800 persons are trafficked into Canada annually and that additional 1,500-2,200 persons are trafficked through Canada into the United States. [6]

In the United Kingdom, 71 women were known to have been trafficked into prostitution in 1998 and the Home Office recognised that the scale is likely greater as the problem is hidden and research estimates that the actual figure could be up to 1,420 women trafficked into the UK during the same peroid. [7] Trafficking in people is increasing in Africa, South Asia and into North America.

Russia is a major source of women trafficked globally for the purpose of sexual exploitation. Russia is also a significant destination and transit country for persons trafficked for sexual and labor exploitation from regional and neighboring countries into Russia, and on to the Gulf states, Europe, Asia, and North America. The ILO estimates that 20 percent of the five million illegal immigrants in Russia are victims of forced labor, which is a form of trafficking. There were reports of trafficking of children and of child sex tourism in Russia. The Government of Russia has made some effort to combat trafficking but has also been criticised for not complying with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking.[8] [9]

The majority of child trafficking cases are in Asia, although it is a global problem. In Thailand, non-governmental organisations (NGO) have estimated that up to a third of prostitutes are children under 18, many trafficked from outside Thailand. [10] In Ukraine, a survey conducted by the NGO “La Strada-Ukraine” in 2001-2003, based on a sample of 106 women being trafficked out of Ukraine found that 3% were under 18, and the US State Department reported in 2004 that incidents of minors being trafficked was increasing.

Trafficking in people has been facilitated by porous borders and advanced communication technologies, it has become increasingly transnational in scope and highly lucrative. Unlike drugs or arms, people can be "sold" several times. The opening up of Asian markets, porous borders, the end of the Soviet Union and the collapse of the former Yugoslavia have contributed to this globalization.

Some causes of trafficking include:

• Profitability
• Growing deprivation and marginalisation of the poor
• Discrimination in employment against women
• Anti-child labor laws eliminating employment for people under the age of 18
• Anti-marriage laws for people under the age of 18, resulting in single motherhood and a desperate need for income
• Restrictive immigration laws that motivate people to take greater risks
• Insufficient penalties against traffickers

International law

In 2000 the United Nations adopted the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, also called the Palermo Convention and two protocols thereto:

• Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children; and
• Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air.

All of these instruments contain elements of the current international law on trafficking in human beings.

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings [11] [12] was adopted by the Council of Europe on 16 May 2005. The aim of the convention is to prevent and combat the trafficking in human beings. Of the 46 members of the Council of Europe, so far 30 have signed the convention and 1 has ratified it. In addition, 1 non-member state has signed the convention (29 June 2006). [13]

United States law

The United States has taken a firm stance against human trafficking both within its borders and beyond. Domestically, human trafficking is prosecuted through the Civil Rights Division, Criminal Section of the United States Department of Justice. Older statutes used to protect 13th Amendment Rights within United States Borders are Title 18 U.S.C., Sections 1581 and 1584. Section 1584 makes it a crime to force a person to work against his will. This compulsion can be effected by use of force, threat of force, threat of legal coercion or by "a climate of fear", that is, an environment wherein individuals believe they may be harmed by leaving or refusing to work. Section 1581 similarly makes it illegal to force a person to work through "debt servitude".

New laws were passed under the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000. The new laws responded to a changing face of trafficking in the United States. It allowed for greater statutory maximum sentences for traffickers, provided resources for protection of and assistance for victims of trafficking and created avenues for interagency cooperation in the field of human trafficking. This law also attempted to encourage efforts to prevent human trafficking internationally, by creating annual country reports on trafficking, as well as by tying financial non-humanitarian assistance to foreign countries to real efforts in addressing human trafficking.

International NPOs, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, have called on the United States to improve its measures aimed at reducing trafficking. They recommend that the United States more fully implement the "United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children" and the "United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime" and for immigration officers to improve their awareness of trafficking and support the victims of trafficking. [14][15]

See also

• Child camel jockeys
• Comfort woman
• Commercial sexual exploitation of children
• Rape
• Prostitution
• Prostitution of children
• Slavery
• White Slavery

External links

Amnesty International

• Amnesty International UK trafficking/forced prostitution
• Amnesty International USA - Human Trafficking
• Amnesty International - Council of Europe: Protect victims of people trafficking
• Amnesty International - concern over trafficking and the World Cup in Germany
• Amnesty International - Kosovo: Trafficked women and girls have human rights
• Amnesty International - Facts and figures on trafficking of women and girls for forced prostitution in Kosovo
• Amnesty International - Serbia and Montenegro: Shameful investigation into sex-trafficking case

Other organisations and campaigns

• The Anti Trafficking Alliance - Tackling Sexual Trafficking, Supporting its Survivors.
• Angel Coalition - Russia/CIS
• "Animus Association" - Bulgaria
• Ansar Burney Trust - Human and Civil Rights Organisation based in Pakistan
• 'Anti Slavery - Trafficking
• Asia Regional Cooperation to Prevent People Trafficking
• Coalition to Abolish Slavery & Trafficking (CAST)
• The Coalition Against Trafficking in Women
• Terre des hommes
• 'The Emancipation Network: Fighting trafficking with economic empowerment'
• ‘End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes’ international NGO
• Face to Face Bulgaria (in Bulgarian) in English
• Fair Fund human rights and development group - trafficking
• Freedom Network (USA): To Empower Trafficked and Enslaved Persons
• Fundación Esperanza - Colombia
• Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women
• Human Trafficking Search Net
• 'Human Rights Watch - Trafficking
• International Organization for Adolescents (IOFA)
• Justice for Children International (JFCI)
• La Strada International Association
• La Strada Ukraine: Preventing trafficking of women in Central and Eastern Europe
• LEFOE - Austria
• 'Maiti Nepal "Crusading for the prevention of girl trafficking, rescue, rehabilitation and reintegration of survivors of trafficking."
• 'MTV anti-trafficking campaign
• The National MultiCultural Institute
• New York City Community Response to Trafficking (NYCRT)
• New York State Anti-Trafficking Coalition
• Operation Day's Work 2005 Norwegian NGO
• The POPPY Project, Eaves – UK based support for trafficking victims
• Coalition against the slavery of women and children in Angeles, Philippines
• Project Constance: Public Service Web Portal on Human Trafficking, Organized Crimes & Violence Against Women
• Transnational AIDS Prevention among Migrant Prostitutes in Europe Project- TAMPEP
• 'Stop Trafficking - Danish NGO'
• "South Texas Coalition Against Human Trafficking/Slavery" - South Texas, USA
• Stop Human Trafficking
• Task Force on Human Trafficking - Israel based NGO
• "Texas Association Against Sexual Assault - Human Trafficking" - Texas, USA
• TIPinAsia Anti Trafficking in Person in Asia Web Portal
• Trafficking Victims Outreach & Services Network - Massachusetts, USA
• 'VietACT: Vietnamese Alliance to Combat Trafficking
• Vital Voices-- Global Partnership US based NGO
• Women's Consortuim of Nigeria- WOCON
• World Hope International
• Child Marriage Film www.childmarriage.org - (A film by Neeraj Kumar)

Articles

• 'Slavery in the 21st century - BBC
• 'Asia's sex trade is 'slavery' - BBC
• Asia's child sex victims ignored – BBC
• 'Sex trade's reliance on forced labour - BBC
• 'A modern slave's brutal odyssey - BBC
• Baltic girls forced into sex slavery - BBC
• 'Slaves auctioned' by traffickers - BBC
• 'Child traffic victims 'failed'- BBC
• On the trail of a trafficked child - BBC
• Suspected baby traders arrested - BBC
• Jail for Chinese baby traffickers - BBC
• S Africa's child sex trafficking nightmare - BBC
• 'Tracking Africa's child trafficking - BBC
• Europe warned over trafficking of children - BBC
• 'Balkans urged to curb trafficking - BBC
• Sex Slaves, Revisited - Slate.com
• 'Bosnia: Sex Slave Recounts Her Ordeal - Institute for War & Peace Reporting
• 'Moldova: Young Women From Rural Areas Vulnerable To Human Trafficking
• 'Merchants of Misery: Human Trafficking in Moldova
• People trafficking: upholding rights & understanding vulnerabilities - special issue of Forced Migration Review
• Human trafficking - University of Massachusetts resource
• 'Coalition Against Trafficking in Women Factbook
• International Organization for Migration Data and Research on Human Trafficking 2005
• HumanTrafficking.com is a program of the Polaris Project. The website is a sizeable web-based resource of news articles, journal articles, books and country-specific resources
• HumanTrafficking.org is a government sponsored resource regarding legislation, NGO partners and regional information.
• Prostitution Research
• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Human Trafficking
• On The Record Series- GIRLS FOR SALE: THE SCANDAL OF TRAFFICKING FROM NIGERIA
• Blogs from the Frontlines of Trafficking- Nigeria 1
• Blogs from the Frontlines of Trafficking- Nigeria 2
• Blogs from the Frontlines of Trafficking- Italy
• 'International Labour Organization forced labour report (1MB pdf)
• 'Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States: International and Domestic Trends - Coalition Against Trafficking in Women
• Fears of rising child sex trade – The Guardian
• ‘They said I wasn’t human but something that can be bought’ – The Times
• ‘Mine for £1,300: Ileana, the teenage sex slave ready to work in London’ – The Sunday Telegraph
• 'Streets of despair - The Observer
• 'The Protection Project - Johns Hopkins University
• 'Pakistani girls forced into prostitution in ME' - The News
• 'Pakistanis released from Tanzanian slave labour arrive home' - Online
• Sex Slavery and Human Trafficking
• 'Minister accused of human trafficking' - Khaleej Times
• "Trafficked from Pakistan, raped and jailed in Saudi Arabia" - AFP
• 'Woman rescued after resisting prostitution push' - Gulf News
• Kidnapped children sold into slavery as camel racers - The Observer
• Kidnapped children starve as camel jockey slaves - The Sunday Times
• Child camel jockeys find hope - BBC
• Women and Children First: The Economics of Sex Trafficking. Lydersen, Kari. LiP Magazine, April 2002
• Traffic in Children - The Economist
• Robots of Arabia - Wired News Article
• Research based on case studies of victims of trafficking in human beings in 3 EU Member States
• The Miami Declaration of Principles on Human Trafficking (via St. Thomas University School of Law)
• Happy hookers of Eastern Europe
• Human Trafficking, Fourth report of the Dutch National Rapporteur
• Current WTO negotiations threaten to worsen the already precarious lot of migrant workers around the globe

Government and international governmental organisations

• Council of Europe - Slaves at the heart of Europe
• European Union: European Commission - Documentation Centre
• European Union: Eurojust and Human Trafficking
• U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report, 2005
• US State Department - Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
• US Department of Justice Human Trafficking Website
• US Department of Health and Human Services: the campaign to rescue and restore victims of human trafficking
• US Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs
• 1999 CIA report
• Report on US government activities combatting trafficking in 2005
• United States Federal Bureau of Investigation
• International Organization for Migration - Counter-Trafficking Programme
• United Nations - Trafficking in Human Beings (This site is an excellent source for international legislation and multi-media video files)
• Trafficking in Minors - United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute
• OSCE Special Representative on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings
• International Labour Organization - Human Trafficking in Asia reports
• International Labour Organization - Viet Nam Children in Prostitution in Hanoi, Hai Phong, Ho Chi Minh City and Can Tho
• Diplomacy Monitor - Human Trafficking

Modern peacekeeping and forced prostitution

• 'Nato force 'feeds Kosovo sex trade' - The Guardian
• 'Kosovo UN troops 'fuel sex trade'
• 'Bosnia: Sex Slave Recounts Her Ordeal - Institute for War & Peace Reporting
• 'Refugees International - Conflict, Sexual Trafficking, and Peacekeeping
• 'UN troops cautioned on sex abuse